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France: Women in the Revolution

Fashion During the French Revolution

Poster showing a woman in white robes, wearing a Liberty cap, with the flags of the Allies; names of battles are inscribed in the borders. 1918. Library of Congress Prints and Photographs Division.

To dress fashionably in the ancien régime, one needed excessive amounts of time and money. For starters there was the acquisition of fine fabrics, and obviously the services of a skilled seamstress. A host of other experts were required to round out a fashionable wardrobe including bootmakers, shoemakers, braid makers, button makers, embroiderers, glovers, hatters, hosiers, haberdashers, perfumers and even ribbon weavers. The number of intricate pieces required for formal court dress and proper accessorizing was almost endless. Beyond that, and often overlooked from our modern vantage point, is the amount of assistance needed in order to be dressed. Most historical dramas include at least one scene where a woman stands with arms outstretched while servants busy themselves with the lacing of stays, layering of petticoats, and pinning of gowns. If these ladies being dressed are not helpless, then they are at least passively inert. And after going through this tedious process of being dressed, they were in a state of limited mobility. This was the reality for French women during the ancien régime — especially at court.

The extravagance of court fashion was literally weighing down even the most devoted fashionistas. Hair styles became almost comical in height — sometimes so high (and heavy!) that they could not fit properly in a carriage. Disillusioned and frustrated ladies began to look toward the simple pastoral life that was associated with the English countryside. Archeological finds in the mid 18th century (Herculaneum in 1738, and Pompeii in 1748) served to rekindle an interest in the ideals of classical simplicity as well. It would not be long before fashionable trendsetters in France began to drop the stays and stiff undergarments of the ancien régime in favor of a lighter and less ornate style.

The Big Three: Joséphine Bonaparte, Térézia Tallien & Juliette Récamier

Meanwhile, in the political realm, the 1789 French Revolution would have huge implications in the fashion world of France. Along with a greater awareness of class differences, a restlessness in French society was evident during these years, and naturally played out in areas of self-expression such as dress. Just as the nobility at Versailles under Louis XVI and Marie Antoinette became ever more decadent, the economic power of the middle class was rising. France was about to fall into one of the most pivotal and bloody upheavals in western history. In terms of dress, this would have a dramatic effect. The various artisans and craftsmen that constituted the fashion industry were part of a complicated guild system that was entangled with the equally complicated political, trade and economic factors of the era. But it was not only the currents of history that shaped fashion; it was the personalities and the fashion icons of the French Revolution. Three women in particular stand out as the trailblazers who instigated these changes — Joséphine Bonaparte, Térézia Tallien and Juliette Récamier. In her book, Liberty Equality Fashion (2024), scholar Anne Higonnet calls them "the women who styled the French Revolution". They challenged the ornate dress of the court, often wearing clothing to suit their own tastes.

Having ties with the aristocracy during the Terror was dangerous. Women with aristocratic husbands, such as Joséphine and Térézia, were often under suspicion and threat of being imprisoned. In December of 1793 Térézia was accused of counterrevolutionary tendencies and sent to jail in Bordeaux. In 1794 she was imprisoned once again (this time in Paris), on orders from Robespierre. It was in prison that she met and became close with Joséphine. Prisoners were usually forced to wear short cropped hair, and often left to wear nothing but a chemise. These experiences in jail served as unlikely inspiration, causing women to embrace the stark conditions endured in jail and make them their own. As Joséphine and Térézia rose to prominence during the Thermidorian Reaction (July 1794-November 1795), their examples encouraged individuals to choose their clothing as a way to express their political views, rather than to emphasize their high social status. They thereby rejected old rules about rank and propriety. Having ties to the Old Regime, and having suffered through the Terror, these women were perfectly poised to make a bold statement. Many women were inspired to adopt and popularize the simple chemise prisoners were forced to wear. It was also a nod to classical Greek and Roman antiquity, and a rejection of the fussy Baroque and Rococo styles. But, it was the charming socialite Juliette Récamier who legitimized the scandalous fashion choices of Joséphine and Térézia. The three women became known as the most desirable and influential figures of the time, and their popularity, beauty and style brought about a shift toward softer, lighter and less restrictive clothing.

Revolution in Fashion 1715-1815. Jean Starobinski, Editor (New York: Abbeville Press, 1989‬‬) p. 90. Library of Congress General Collections.

The image to the left shows the radical change in silhouette of the new style. The hourglass cut of the traditional court gown was tossed aside and replaced with the simple cotton dress — largely absent of structural undergarments. The most notable aspect of this new gown was the new higher waist (the so-called Empire silhouette in connection to Napoleon’s early empire External) which essentially removed the need for stays by changing the desired silhouette of the woman, or rather allowing a natural silhouette. The fabrics also changed. Cotton muslin from India became all the rage, replacing silk in the most fashionable boutiques. The finer the weight of this expensive indienne fabric, and the more delicate the detail, the more expensive and desirable it was to the trendy upper classes. The simplicity of this Revolutionary one-piece chemise dress (with a soft bodice fitted by using only drawstrings) meant women did not have to rely on the skills of a professional seamstress. And the cotton fabric formerly associated with undergarments (or in coarser weaves with the servant class) was worn on its own, replacing the sumptuous silk finery associated with ancien régime court attire. This was egalitarianism in dress. It was a reaction against the pomp of the court. It allowed more women, even those of moderate means, to dress more fashionably — and move more freely. The chemise gown, with its soft shape, light-weight materials, and improved ease of dressing, felt revolutionary and liberating. But the diaphanous look was shocking to many and considered immodest in how it revealed the body. It wasn't particularly practical either, especially for those in cooler climates. While many of the French (and English) were scandalized by these new French fashions, still many more were intrigued.

Many American women adopted this new style, including Dolly Madison (wife of President James Madison), who wore it for all her official portraits. Her portrait by Gilbert Stuart now hangs in the White House collection External. To some Americans the style seemed like a practical step toward mobility and functionality rather than any seedy attempt at sex appeal. Others were happy to attract attention. Elizabeth Patterson from Baltimore, Maryland External wore a wedding dress in this new flimsy style that had gentlemen staring. The beauty of the style is that it could be worn either way depending on the desired effect. And while these women were scolded by conservatives for their provocative attitudes and “skimpy” attire, there was much more to these choices than an attempt at attracting attention. The larger point was about liberation, comfort, and of course being à la mode. These women were still legally dependent on men. Despite the famous 1789 Declaration of the Rights of Woman written by Olympe de Gouges External, women's rights were not recognized and even the more enlightened thinkers maintained that women must accept their status as passive citizens. What was a bold and empowered woman to do in the face of such constraints? Use the means at her disposal. Fashion was a powerful form of body politic and a powerful form of self-assertion. It changed the daily lives of women by freeing them from heavy and tedious garments, and more importantly, underscoring their power as autonomous individuals.

Hair, Jewelry & Style in Thermidorian Paris

After Robespierre was denounced (and beheaded) the period of Post Terror Paris began. Known as the Thermidorian Reaction, Parisians during this time were in need of some release after the tense years of fear and persecution. A strange, but perhaps understandable phenomenon arose — Victims' Balls or bals des victimes. The Victims’ Balls were dancing societies that formed after the Terror in Thermidorian Paris. Survivors of victims (those killed) of the Terror would come to mourn, dance and, depending on whose account you believe, perhaps indulge in feigned grief. For more information see the section further down onBals des Victims or consult the fascinating study into these balls in Ronald Schechter's article "Gothic Thermador, The Bal des Victimes, the Fantastic, and the Production of Historical Knowledge in Post-Terror France" External. Historians such as Thomas Carlyle and Jules Michelet have weighed in on these morbid events, and the Goncourt brothers gave the dances their blessing in their Histoire de la société francaise pendant le directoire External (Paris, 1855) stating:

"La France danse. Elle danse depuis thermidor; elle danse comme elle chantait autrefois; elle danse pour se venger, elle danse pour oublier! Entre son passé sanglant, son avenir sombre, elle danse! A peine sauvée de la guillotine, elle danse pour n'y plus croire; et le jarret tendu, l'oreille à la mesure, la main sur l'épaule la première venue, la France, encore sanglante et toute ruinée, tourne, et pirouette, et se trémouse en une farandole immense et folle" (Goncourt, 137-138 External). "France is dancing. She has been dancing since Thermidor...she dances to avenge, she dances to forget! Between her bloody past and her dark future, she dances! Scarcely saved from the guillotine, she dances...France , still bloodied and all ruined, turns and pirouettes and spins about in an immense and mad farandole External."

Drastic changes in hairstyles External saw fashionable women sporting a short cropped cut known as the guillotine cut External or coiffure a la victime for obvious and dark reasons. This was in tandem with the red neck ribbons worn by attendees, perhaps the precursor to the modern day choker necklaces worn by today's celebrities External These were styles to be worn at the famous bals des victimes. These new edgy cuts were a far cry from the grandiose hair styles of Marie Antoinette at court, but it should be noted that Marie Antoinette was radical in her own ways, popularizing a version of the aforementioned cotton gown in a famous scandalous portrait "Marie Antoinette en chemise" by famous artist Elizabeth Vigée Le Brun External.

Udo J. Keppler, artist. Udo J., 1872-1956, artist. Liberty striding forward, carrying a flaming torch labeled "Revolution" and an American flag, wearing a phrygian cap with tricolor cockade, as she crushes underfoot a scepter and a crown labeled "Plutocracy". 1909. Library of Congress Prints and Photographs Division.

Jewelry was generally shunned during the Terror as it identified you as part of the wealthy upper class. Too much personal adornment was frowned upon and it was too dangerous to wear ostentatious jewelry, however, there was a resurgence in popularity of more simple jewelry. In tandem with clothing styles, jewelry paid homage to the simple styles of ancient Rome. Of particular popularity were the bangles worn on the newly bared upper arm. Often, three would be worn (one nearing the shoulder, one above the elbow and one on the wrist). Classical themes were all over Paris at the time, and women sought to emulate the Greek and Roman statues of goddesses. Those who dared might wear rings on all their fingers. There was much talk about women catching cold due to being in this state of undress. True republicans would wear civic-minded jewelry, bijoux révolutionnaires. These might have images of phrygian caps, or be objects made out of stones taken from the Bastille prison, or feature any sort of egalitarian emblem. According to La Bijouterie Française au XIXe Siècle, some were even fashioned into "petites guillotines". (p.13)

La bijouterie française au XIXe siècle. By Henri Vever (Paris: H. Floury,1906‬) p. 34. Library of Congress General Collections.

Politics and a desire to express political loyalties in an overt and unmistakable way was a driving force at this time. Revolutionary men, for their part, ditched the culottes (breeches) of the upper classes, thus the term sans-culottes External. In further efforts to advertise political loyalty it is believed that General Lafayette (hero of the American Revolution) and Camille Desmoulins (French politician) designed the tricolore of the French revolutionary cockade. This union of the white bourbon with the ancient colors of Paris, blue and red, was meant to represent the Three Estates of French society External (white/nobility/first estate, blue/clergy/second estate, red/third estate). This new symbol of the French Republic, along with the famous Phrygian cap External (or liberty cap), could be worn by all who wanted to support the new government.

The full force of this violent break from the ancient traditions of France would not endure for long. With the rise of Napoléon, a different but equally rigid system of laws and expectations would be instituted, and the hooped cages and other restrictive undergarments External would return with a vengeance. While a fan of neoclassical style, Napoléon was more concerned with the French silk industry. As he did in other ways, Napoléon looked to retain certain elements of the ancien régime and incorporate them into his eventual Empire. Thus the free-form white empire dress was short-lived. However, this in no way detracts from the audacity of the fashion revolution and those who led the revolutionary charge, as Higonnet’s book makes clear. Indeed, her meticulous recounting of the intertwined lives of Joséphine, Juliette, and Térézia (among others such as Germaine de Staël) brings to light those who were not afraid to make strong statements. A new project under her direction makes available a phenomenal collection of fashion plates from the influential magazine Journal des dames et des modes. Belonging to the Morgan Library and Museum at Columbia University, these images have been digitized, and a team of faculty and students have both transcribed and translated the captions. A study of the fashion plates of this time enables us to see the very real changes in dress as chronicled by the most influential fashion journal of the time. Fashion plates from the influential years of 1797-1804 can be viewed online at Style Revolution External, a project dedicated to this important fashion magazine.

For an historic perspective from France, we turn to the Introduction of Fashion in Paris External by 19th-century French writer and cultural historian Octave Uzanne External:

"If we consider France alone — the country which — for so many years, created fashion, and imposed the eternal laws of costume on neighboring nations, we may fairly say that the art of dress has never been more interesting than since it became democratised, and thus grew general. The Revolution, which overthrew, with no useful result, so many traditions, and set up humanitarian theories far exceeding in number the really beneficent reforms it conferred on the people — that Revolution which dug so mighty an abyss between two societies, and from which the history of our uncouth modern civilisation takes its date — the Revolution, when it severed the links of all French tradition, gave birth to a new conception of the aesthetics of dress, of which the fashions of the present century — so extraordinary in their number, so near and yet so far away already — are the logical outcome. In the beginning these garments of a newly liberated people left the body free, followed its outlines, and were well-nigh transparent in texture. Their inventors drew their inspiration from nature and the pagan mythology; they aimed at concealing nothing, and followed the harmonious lines of Grecian beauty; under the Empire, we see them, less frivolous already, growing more Roman, and leaning towards the cramped lines of military uniform. Under the Restoration, the fashion, like the neo-medieval literature of the time, grew formal, affecting the stiff lines and starched manners of a sham Troubadourism. The year 1830 brought more of the Renaissance; dress was more lissome, more voluptuous; never were fashions more feminine, more subtle, more original, more exquisitely artistic. Later, exaggeration began, increased, and grew worse and worse, till it reached the monstrous caricature of the crinoline and the monkey-like trappings of the Second Empire. Later than 1870 we can come to no clear judgment concerning our taste in dress, because a space of more than fifteen years must elapse before any definite opinion can be formed of shapes and colours as a whole." Octave Uzanne was also famous for anticipating The End of Books External in a publication of that name printed in an 1894 issue of Scribner's Magazine. He also provocatively predicted "the success of everything which will favor and encourage the indolence and selfishness of men External" giving the example of the elevator.

Women's fashions: Nov. 1913, Paris - 2 women. 1913. Library of Congress Prints and Photographs Division.

In more recent years we see America begin to play with the long-established supremacy of Parisian Fashion in the Netflix series Emily in Paris External. Produced in 2020 by American writer and director Darren Star (who created the popular shows Beverly Hills 90210, Melrose Place, and Sex in the City), this show dared to break some rules about etiquette, and poke fun at some of the more stubborn French stereotypes. Both loved and hated (perhaps not in equal measure) by the French, none other than Brigitte Macron has made a cameo in the show's fourth season (she chose her own wardrobe). And the President of France, Emmanuel Macron himself sees this show as a positive depiction of the glamorous (and fun!) side of Parisian fashion External and a way to, once again, place Paris firmly in the center of the Fashion world even among the less well-traveled American viewers of the 21st century. Current costume designer Marylin Fitoussi External has held onto her creative autonomy in selecting the clothing, despite pressure to promote certain brands. Her vision as of Fall 2024 was to break some of the rules long governing French fashion and allow a certain amount of bad taste or tackiness in her choices. Dare we say ringarde External? This step has felt liberating and tracks with the long history of France's bohemian attitude of flouting authority. Judging from the popularity of the show, it has been liberating to a large segment of the population at large who perhaps enjoy, like the women of the French Revolutionary era, making their own rules about what they wear. Clothing and fashion trends continue to empower and embolden those who embrace their own voice and dismiss convention in favor of audacity.

Fashion Terminology

Discussing changes in fashion can be problematic. Deciding on the appropriate terminology for women's accessories is complicated — especially when reconciling the various languages of Europe — and the fluidity of fashion. Costume historians still debate the names — and uses — of women's undergarments throughout history. The French term corps de jupe, for example, might be translated into "bodiced petticoats", but at the time the most common garments used were referred to as stays, which were supportive garments that were generally laced up like a soft corset. And while they do resemble corsets, the word corset was not used until the middle of the 19th century. Some stays were meant to be visible and others were hidden under stomachers and gowns. How uncomfortable were all these undergarments? Scholars disagree on whether these items were restrictive or simply cumbersome. Some argue that the layers of stays, petticoats, shifts, pockets, rolls, stockings and garters, gowns and stomachers were used for warmth after all. Perhaps it depends on the temperament of the well-dressed lady. One can watch a reenactment of someone getting dressed in the 18th century External and judge for oneself.

Charles Nicolas Cochin, artist. Decoration du Bal Masqué donné par le roy. [between 1745 and 1754]. Library of Congress Prints and Photographs Division.

Bal des Victimes & Gothic French Fantastique

The historic evidence for the bals des victimes is ambiguous. They are mentioned in countless contemporary accounts as balls that were attended by the relatives of victims of the Terror (primarily the nobility). They appear in memoires and novels — and later in films. But, there is still some debate about the hard facts behind these gleefully morbid dances. Historians look to prove these events occurred by evaluating the primary sources. They might also reasonably try to determine an author's motivation in writing about them. For example, perhaps these balls were criticized by those who were appalled by such jovial behavior in a time of mourning. Or perhaps they were motivated by a desire to criticize the brazen extravagance of the nobility? It is speculated that the number of the balls was exaggerated and the behavior deliberately misrepresented and embellished. Yet, as scholar Ronald Schechter writes in his fascinating and well-documented essay, Gothic Thermidor: The bals des victimes, the Fantastic, and the Production of Historical Knowledge in Post-Terror France External (1998), the more interesting question is why the lore of the bals des victimes has endured over the centuries as part of the French collective memory. It cannot be explained by partisan politics. Many commented on these balls, but there is no clear group who weaponizes them to good effect. They are equally praised and scorned but in no systematic way that demonizes a particular segment of the population. Some are more sympathetic to the phenomenon, citing the need for France to have some sort of release valve, some joy after the savage Reign of Terror. Others are deeply critical of the dances for taking place too early — perhaps before the bodies of the dead had even had time to decompose. They frowned on the légèreté or carelessness, and some linked it to the general reckless mindset of the Revolution itself. These observers confuse and even conflate the forces behind the bals des victimes. Indeed, who these participants were remains unclear. Was it truly only the relations of those nobles or royals who had been guillotined? Did the popular socialites Térézia Tallien, Juliette Récamier and Joséphine (before her marriage to Napoléon) with ties to nobility popularize these affairs? Some sources report these dances were not reserved for the victims of the aristocracy or the counterrevolutionaries, but actually hosted a mix of classes. They were a place where — ostensibly — an executioner might meet the relative of a victim he himself had beheaded. These dances were a manifestation of the very social confusion that resulted from the upheaval of the 1789 Revolution. And perhaps these Parisians were swept up by the relative madness and relief of the Thermidor period. Perhaps the disintegration of the known social order is what fueled these wild dances.

Schechter points to a revival of recounting of the bals des victimes beginning in the 1820s. He points to some possibilities for this delay. One thought is that since this period between Robespierre and Napoléon has not been examined with the same rigor as other periods, the bals des victimes serve as an aide mémoire. The dances have been discussed enough among historians that they are firmly entrenched as fact, and the onus lies on disproving them rather than substantiating their existence. Another interesting point is that tales of the supernatural and fantastic surged in popularity at this time. Mary Shelley's Frankenstein was published in Britain in 1818. Victor Hugo and Alexandre Dumas both incorporated haunting elements in their novels. This century saw a growing popularity with mystical happenings, spirits, and even necromancers such as Count Alessandro di Cagliostro, who claimed to summon or reanimate the dead through sorcery or witchcraft. The fantastic novel Le bal des victimes written by the prolific French author Pierre Alexis Ponson du Terrail External (1829-1871) used the same Gothic style that is associated with Ann Radcliffe. He adds a hefty dose of the supernatural to his depictions. Scholar Ronald Paulson argues that the emergence and popularity of Gothic fiction in England in the later 18th century was influenced by the societal anxieties brought about by the French Revolution of 1789.

Film has also played a part in memorializing the bals des victimes in the popular imagination. As Schechter notes, Abel Gance's 1927 silent film Napoléon External has an extended scene of a bal des victimes, complete with text that tells a story about the history of the balls and even makes some effort to explain (perhaps ahistorically) how Napoléon came to attend such a ball even as he was not related to a true victim of the Terror. Gance's Napoléon has an extensive timeline of restoration External including a new sound score (by Carmine Coppola) and rerelease by Francis Ford Coppola in 1981 and again in 2012 with a restored version by Kevin Brownlow and conductor Carl Davis. More recently, Ridley Scott released Napoléon (2023) External, an epic biographical film with Joaquin Phoenix as Napoléon and Vanessa Kirby as Joséphine. Early in the film there is a scene at a ball where Napoléon and Joséphine first meet. Her hair is cropped short, and the feel of the ball is both gothic and somewhat edgy. The decision to include this scene tends to confirm that the public's fascination and attraction to these paradoxical balls has endured into the new millennium. No doubt the fascination with the French Revolution as a whole, and all that it symbolizes, will continue to enthrall and horrify.

Further Reading on Dress, Music & Gothic French Fantastique

Changes in the Ballroom Repertoire Initiated by the French Revolution by Ellis Rodgers External (open access)

Commemorating the Dead in Revolutionary France: Revolution and Remembrance, 1789–1799 by Joseph Clarke (Cambridge University Press, 2007).

Looking Like Death: Dress and Allegory at the Bals des Victimes by Sarah Nixon Gasyna External (open access)

French and English Fashions from the Revolution to the First Empire by Frances Tucker External (open access)

Echoes of the Guillotine: Berlioz and the French Fantastic by Marianna Ritchey (19th-Century Music, Vol. 34 (Fall, 2010)

Gothic Fiction and the French Revolution by Ronald Paulson External (ELH, Vol. 48, No. 3 (Fall, 1981) (open access)

Music of the French Revolution by Charles Hughes (Science & Society, Vol. 4, No. 2 (Spring, 1940)

The Fantastic and European Gothic: History, Literature and the French Revolution by Matthew Gibson (University of Wales Press, 2013)

For an overview of French women in history and the evolution of the French feminist movement, please see the research guide Feminism & French Women in History and Fashion & French Women's Press.

To find more works on Fashion and French Culture of the Revolutionary and Post Revolutionary Era use these LCSHs:

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